Background The one-to-one interview is a commonly used data collection method in health and social research. Increasing attention has been given in the literature to the process of conducting an interview, particularly with respect to the role of the interviewer and the relationship between the interviewer and interviewee. The individual interview is a valuable method of gaining insight into people's perceptions, understandings and experiences of a given phenomenon and can contribute to in-depth data collection. However, the interview is more than a conversational interaction between two people and requires considerable knowledge and skill on behalf of the interviewer.

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... The first part included descriptive (quantitative) demographic and socioeconomic data, and the second part of the questionnaire consisted of semi-structured (qualitative) interviews with individual community members on nature and the use of natural open spaces in the area (Appendix S1, available online). Interviews allowed deliberation on individuals' perceptions and experiences of a phenomenon, contributing to rich data collection (Ryan et al. 2009) and understanding of the values placed on ecosystem services (Scholte et al. 2015). The intention of the interviews was to explore and understand participants' 'mental constructs' of nature and ecosystem services and the diversity of reasons for attitudes and perceptions (Fischer & Young 2007: 271), facilitating consideration of the relational values people have with nature. ...

... All interviews were transcribed, and thematic content analysis of the data and observations of the area was undertaken manually (Guest et al. 2012). Using emergent codes to identify themes manually, thematic analysis is useful in capturing complexities in meaning (Ryan et al. 2009), particularly where inductive analyses of interview responses is necessary. Emerging themes were grouped as follows: (1) benefitsnature as a resource for supporting livelihoods and lifestyles and community outreach and employment opportunities; (2) ecosystem disservicespersonal safety and health and aesthetic concerns; and (3) perspectives on management of natural open spaceslack of political accountability and municipal planning and priorities for the natural open space system. ...

Few studies have highlighted perceptions of urban natural open space systems: land specifically excluded from development to protect ecosystem services. We used a local metropolitan city in South Africa to explore community perceptions of its natural open space system through individual qualitative interviews (n = 40). The objectives were: (1) to identify ecosystem services and disservices associated with the city's natural open space system, and the reasons thereof, by exploring the relational values of nature held by a diverse socioeconomic spectrum of urban residents; and (2) to identify priorities for protecting the natural open space system by enhancing the benefits and minimizing ecosystem disservices. Reference to ecosystem services and disservices were coded according to the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) categorization of nature's contribution to people. Non-material services (relational benefits) were impacted by exploitative material uses, access concerns and (mis)management. Challenges and opportunities identified relate to nature as a resource for supporting livelihoods and lifestyles; community outreach and employment opportunities; personal safety, health and aesthetic concerns; and lack of political accountability and municipal planning in terms of the management of natural open spaces. Innovative collaborative management and stewardship interventions with ecological and socioeconomic benefits should be prioritized to protect the natural open space system.

... Interviews are one of the most effective methods of qualitative research. They facilitate collecting information on participants' perceptions and experiences (Coughlan and Cronin, 2009). ...

... Most participants reported that some of the interviewers are not prepared to select the qualified candidate from the pool. Although interview appears to be a key assessment tool in the selection process (Coughlan and Cronin, 2009), interview bias came as a crucial problematic issue in the assessment. In fact, recruitment and selection researchers consider this as a major challenge that leads to the selection of the wrong person. ...

  • Ahmed Eman
  • Adel Al-Dhuwaihi

The success of schools depends on effective recruitment and selection of school leaders. The present study sought to understand the processes of recruiting and selecting public school leaders in Saudi Arabia from their perspectives. Interview data were collected from 39 high school leaders in the Eastern province in Saudi Arabia. The results of the study indicated that the school leadership recruitment and selection processes in Saudi Arabia consist of few linear steps where the ministry engages in an effort to attract candidates from internal resources, followed by initial screening, and a formal interview to select the candidate from the pool. The analysis also revealed several challenges involved in the recruitment and selection processes of prospective candidates. Based on the findings of this study, schools are currently struggling to recruit qualified candidates that commensurate the mission and the needs of our schools. Therefore, we recommend providing appropriate budget, resources, and training to human resource staff to effectively communicate with prospective candidates, identify the type of candidates and design recruitment and selection strategy accordingly. Keywords: Recruitment, selection, school leaders, human resources, Saudi Arabia.

... Even so, data were only collected from health professionals living in Dar es Salaam, so generalizability outside of Dar es Salaam to other urban or rural Tanzanian contexts is limited. Furthermore, while the moderators encouraged all participants to share and encouraged discussion of differing views, some participants may have over-or under-reported their experiences in the context of the group experience [32]. ...

Background Rates of unplanned adolescent pregnancy and unsafe induced abortions are very high in Sub-Saharan African countries including Tanzania. Despite their availability and accessibility, modern family planning methods are reported to be critically underutilized by adolescents. This study is part of a broader study that aims to develop a curriculum that will be used in training health professionals by investigating the sexual health training needs of health providers and students in Tanzania. Aim This study describes the perceptions of health professionals and students on the provision of contraceptives to adolescents. Methods Qualitative formative assessment type of research was conducted using 18 focus groups stratified among health professionals and students (midwives, nurses, and medical doctors). Study participants were presented with the theoretical scenario of a 14-year-old girl who sought contraceptive services at a family planning clinic. This theoretical scenario was used to determine how health professionals and students would handle the case. Thematic analysis guided the examination and determination of data results. Results Three main themes emerged from the data, including (1) knowledge about the provision of contraceptives to adolescents, (2) perception of the adolescents' right to contraceptive use, and (3) barriers to the provision of contraceptives to adolescents. Participants stated that having a baseline knowledge of contraceptive services for adolescents and their rights to contraceptives would trigger their decision on offering the contraceptive. On the other hand, being unaware of the reproductive health rights for adolescents, judgmental behavior of providers, as well as religious and cultural dynamics were all found to be major barriers for providers to offer contraceptive services to the 14-year-old adolescent girl in the theoretical scenario. Conclusion These findings support the need for comprehensive sexual health education in Tanzanian health professional training programs.

... Using best practices in research will help to avoid conflicts of interest, and better ensure that valid and reliable data are collected (Ryan et al., 2009). If, for example, a program recruits students for interviews after they participate in a UFE, someone outside of the UFE leadership or instructional team should be the interviewer. ...

Undergraduate field experiences (UFEs) are a prominent element of science education across many disciplines; however, empirical data regarding the outcomes are often limited. UFEs are unique in that they typically take place in a field setting, are often interdisciplinary, and include diverse students. UFEs range from courses, to field trips, to residential research experiences, and thereby have the potential to yield a plethora of outcomes for undergraduate participants. The UFE community has expressed interest in better understanding how to assess the outcomes of UFEs. In response, we developed a guide for practitioners to use when assessing their UFE that promotes an evidence‐based, systematic, iterative approach. This essay guides practitioners through the steps of: identifying intended UFE outcomes, considering contextual factors, determining an assessment approach, and using the information gained to inform next steps. We provide a table of common learning outcomes with aligned assessment tools, and vignettes to illustrate using the assessment guide. We aim to support comprehensive, informed assessment of UFEs, thus leading to more inclusive and reflective UFE design, and ultimately improved student outcomes. We urge practitioners to move toward evidence‐based advocacy for continued support of UFEs. This paper serves as a guide to best practices in assessment and evaluation of undergraduate field experiences. We offer a response to field educators who want to learn how to effectively evaluate outcomes from field learning experiences.

... Such shares, at first glance, might have hardly any relation to the topic of the interview. However, they could spontaneously direct the interviewer to new aspects of the research topic (Ryan, Coughlan, Cronin 2009). Therefore, the in-depth interview allowed establishing an environment of comfort and free of prejudice when discussing breaking the Standard of the Bulgarian language rules. ...

The purpose of the research was to explore the experiences of Bulgarian university students, representatives of generations Y and Z, with breaking the rules of the Standard of Bulgarian language when communicating with textual posts on the Facebook social network site (SNS) and social networking applications (apps). Breaking language norms is due to the perception of the SNS and social apps communication as speaking rather than writing. Therefore, many of the language rules applicable to the writing are broken. The research employed a phenomenological inductive research strategy. It used a narrative literature review from 2011 to 2021 and an in-depth interview of 15 university students as research instruments. The theoretical framework was built on the theory of communication accommodation and audience design. Two main themes crystallized in the in-depth interviews: 1) communication in SNS and social apps – visual, verbal, and informal and 2) context and communicator determine the level of the Bulgarian language rules observance. In these themes, perceiving SNS communication as speaking, not as writing, hurrying up to join the communication, and the perception of the online environment as informal, explained the breaking the language rules. The research is the first to study the issue in the context of the experiences of the language users, and it opens the scientific field to further research.

... A plethora of literature has been done on interviewing for the past three decades. Interview literature have focused on types of interview (Goldman & McDonald, 1987;Minichiello et al., 2008;Morgan, 1996;Wengraf, 2001); principles and practice of interview (Arksey & Knight, 1999;Denzin & Lincoln, 2000;Gubrium & Holstein, 2001;Roulston, 2010;Hannabuss, 1996;Holstein & Gubrium, 1995;Kvale, 1996); interviewing techniques and skills (Douglas, 1985;Doyle, 2004;Kvale, 2013;Kvale & Brinkmann, 2009;Rubin & Rubin, 2011;McNair et al., 2008;DeJonckheere & Vaughn, 2019); challenges in doing interview (Roulston, 2011;Adams, 2010;Brayda & Boyce, 2014); technologymediated interview (Burnard,1994;Howard et al.,1988;Musselwhite et al., 2007;Sweet, 2002;Trier-Bieniek, 2012); qualitative research interview (Mero-Jaffe, 2011;Tanggaard, 2008;Brayda & Boyce, Philippine Social Science Journal Volume 4 Number 3 July-September 2021 97 2014; Jamshed, 2014;Frances et al., 2009;Qu & Dumay, 2011;Roulston, 2011); employment interview (Janz, 1982;Day & Carroll, 2003;Campion et al., 1997;Levashina et al., 2014); and police, investigative, and courtroom interviews (Aidridge & Cameron,1999;Cederborg et al., 2000;Daviesl et al., 2000;Fisher et al., 1987;Gibbons, 2008;Griffiths & Milne, 2006;Holt & Johnson, 2010;Johnson, 2002;Korkman et al., 2006;Lamb, 1996;Loftus, 1982;Myklebust & Bjørklund, 2006). Police, investigative and courtroom interviews are the most widely studied of the foregoing. ...

  • Constantino TERRENAL Ballena Constantino TERRENAL Ballena

This paper is a corpus linguistics research that examined the typology of questions asked by graduate students who did papers that solely followed qualitative research interviewing. Corpus linguistics is a methodological approach employed to analyze patterns of language use in naturally occurring texts. The paper investigated the breadth and structure of the interview questions and the unproductive questions found in the corpus. The corpus consisted of 7,516 interview questions examined following the structure-breadth-function typology of questions as a framework. The corpus was analyzed by identifying the patterns of the interview questions for these to be properly typologized. Results revealed that Wh- questions (5,365 of the 7,516 questions or 71.381%) were the most frequently asked interview questions, followed by the yes-no questions (1,455 or 19.359%). Tell-Explain-Describe or TED questions (6 or 0.106%) had the least frequency of occurrence. Additionally, closed-ended questions (3,977 or 52.914%) were more prevalent than open-ended questions (3,539 or 47.086%). While a total of 802 prefaced questions were identified with so-prefaced questions as the most pervasive (446 or 56.611%). Finally, the study results showed that leading and multiple questions constituted the unproductive interview questions, the latter being the most preponderant with 700 or 55.556% of the 1,260 unproductive questions. The subcategorizations yes-no and wh- leading questions; and multiple yes-no, multiple yes-no-wh-, and multiple wh- (serial and single) questions are nowhere to be found in the available literature on interview questions, thus adding to the value of the present study. The quality of qualitative research interviewing is facilitated by the typology of questions interviewers asked based on the structure and breadth of the questions. Generally, the wh- open-ended type is the more appropriate one in qualitative research interviewing.

Lack of women's empowerment is a reality for women in Zimbabwe, including rural Shamva women. This research presents findings from primary data collected using in-depth interviews and focus group discussions. The research departs from other studies by adopting an empowerment perspective to ISALS scholarship. Using the Sara Longwe Women Empowerment Framework, we explore the impact of ISALS on women's socio-economic status. ISALS were found to contribute to improved financial wellbeing. As women's economic fortunes improve, they gain respect and regard in the community. Despite these positive indicators, however, ISALS also was found to be a source of exclusion and polarisation.

  • Baffour Boakye Baffour Boakye

Intra-party conflicts and party fragmentation is not new phenomenon to Ghanaian politics. It traces its historical antecedents to when Kwame Nkrumah led a section of the UGCC to break away to form the CPP in 1949. Subsequent ones occurred in the Third Republic of Ghana when the Danquah-Busia tradition's Progress Party was split into the PFP and UNC ahead of the 1979 elections. Ghana's Fourth Republic cannot entirely be left out of the picture because it has also had its share of intra-party conflicts and fragmentations. Despite its resurgence, some political parties in Ghana like the NPP and NDC have perfected the art of managing the situation as and when it erupts. However, the Nkrumahist parties have failed to recover from their recurrent fragmentation. Against this backdrop, the study examined the dynamics of the fragmentation of the Nkrumahist parties and its impact on them. The study adopted the qualitative research approach to obtain its primary data as well as relied on some existing secondary sources from books, articles, etc. The study found that leadership crises, exploitation of warring factions by major political parties, and the effects of Ghana's political system have over the years contributed to the inability of Nkrumahist parties to recover from fragmentation like NDC and NPP. The dynamics to this fragmentation include self-induced factors like the excessive glorification of their founder and absence of effective party structures, selfishness and greed, political opportunism, party financing, and Ideological rift. Additional factors like the deliberate extermination of the tradition through coups and the destabilization ploy by major parties were found to have also contributed to the Nkrumahists' problem. The Nkrumahists fragmentation was found to have contributed to their abysmal electoral performance, affected their ability to advance alternative governance proposals, entrenched the 'two-horse' race between the NDC and NPP as well as attracted businessmen who only use the tradition as means of amassing wealth or launch their political career. The study recommends among others the need for Nkrumahists to build effective party structures, strengthen their conflict resolution mechanisms, and refrain from excessive greed and political patronage.

  • Mychely Schubert Mychely Schubert

Aim This research project aimed to identify barriers in implementing blockchain-based solutions for land property records. For this purpose, a literature review was carried out with a particular focus on blockchain technology and land property records. Also, an online survey collected data from different 'professionals to identify the challenges they have been facing. Methodology At the first stage of this research, a review of relevant literature was carried out. It sought to understand blockchain technology and how it has been applied to the real estate sector. Besides, it helped the researcher to identify potential partners for the survey. The research was designed as a multiple-case study. Data collection took place through an online survey conducted with professionals involved in blockchain and land property projects. Through a cross-syntheses method, the collected was analyzed, and so barriers faced by the survey respondents were identified and summarized. Results According to the survey's results, the three main barriers faced by countries in implementing blockchain in land property are: (1) "legal uncertainty" with 83.33%; (2) "lack of awareness by professionals" with 66.67%; (3) "interoperability with other systems" and "lack of awareness by users" with 50%. Conclusion This research concluded that implementing a successful blockchain land property system requires much more than technological infrastructure. To allow this technology to work property, countries will need to make major changes in the land property systems, especially regarding the legal aspect of it. Besides, it is also important that states raise blockchain awareness among stakeholders (professionals and users).

Background: The appreciative inquiry (AI) interview follows a specific format and needs to be planned and developed before implementation. AI questions are designed to draw on the interviewee's experiences, commencing with general questioning and progressing to more focused questioning. Aim: To explain how to plan and undertake AI interviews, and to discuss issues that nurse researchers might encounter. Discussion: This article is based on the first author's experience of undertaking an AI doctoral study. The primary method of collecting data for the study was AI interviews. The more focused questioning related to participants' experiences of positive actions or behaviours. Although questioning was positive in nature and participant-centric, conducting the interviews was more problematic than the first author anticipated. Some participants struggled to recall positive memories to share. Conclusion: The unexpected response to the interview questions required the first author to examine her practices, as well as beliefs and judgements relating to AI. This reflexivity assisted in implementing changes to the study's process, resulting in a more positive experience for her and the participants. Implications for practice: Researchers using the AI interview require the capacity to be self-critical and change the process if necessary to enrich the outcome.

  • Adri. Labuschagne

For many scientists used to doing quantitative studies the whole concept of qualitative research is unclear, almost foreign, or 'airy fairy' - not ' real' research. Clinical scientists sometimes find it difficult to accept this research method where the generation of hypotheses often replaces the testing thereof, explanation replaces measurement, and understanding replaces generalisability. Since qualitative research is becoming a prominent tool in medical research, it will be worthwhile to have a closer look at what it is and how it works.

  • Kathryn Roulston
  • Kathleen Demarrais Kathleen Demarrais
  • Jamie B. Lewis

A large proportion of social science investigations rely on interview data, yet few researchers received formal training in interviewing. The authors investigated how novice researchers developed their interview skills, reporting on postgraduate students' experiences and reflections during an intensive 15-day interview course. Data analyzed for the article include audiotapes and transcripts of in-depth interviews and students' written critiques and journal reflections. Challenges faced by novice interviewers conducting in-depth interviews included unexpected participant behaviors, dealing with the consequences of the interviewers' own actions and subjectivities, constructing and delivering questions, and handling sensitive research topics. The authors also discuss the transcription of audio-recorded talk and include their own and students' reflections concerning the learning and teaching of interviewing. Finally, the authors provide recommendations for teaching interview skills for the purpose of doing social science research. This study informs teachers of qualitative research and researchers who seek to develop their interview skills.

  • Lokman I. Meho Lokman I. Meho

This article summarizes findings from studies that employed electronic mail (e-mail) for conducting indepth interviewing. It discusses the benefits of, and the challenges associated with, using e-mail interviewing in qualitative research. The article concludes that while a mixed mode interviewing strategy should be considered when possible, e-mail interviewing can be in many cases a viable alternative to face-to-face and telephone interviewing. A list of recommendations for carrying out effective e-mail interviews is presented.

  • Prudence Plummer Prudence Plummer

Qualitative research is often criticized for its lack of scientific rigour. In particular, the criticisms of qualitative research relate to issues of representativeness and generalizability of the findings, reliability and validity.

  • Prudence Plummer Prudence Plummer

There is a strong tradition of quantitative research in the health sciences, but qualitative research designs are now being used more frequently to investigate certain areas of rehabilitation, such as patients' views of health care services, and how clinicians make decisions during evaluations and treatment. Many qualitative approaches are available for conducting these types of inquiries, such as interviews, participant observation, and focus groups.

Discovery Interviews have become widely used in the UK National Health Service as a service improvement tool and patient involvement mechanism. This first paper in a series of three explores the development of Discovery Interviews in the NHS in the context of explicit central government policy of the development of patient-centred services and user involvement in shaping health service organization and delivery. It draws on the published literature on Discovery Interviews to date, including that on evaluation.

  • Tina Koch Tina Koch

The aim of this paper is to show the way in which the decision trail of a qualitative research process can be maintained. It is argued that the trustworthiness (rigour) of a study may be established if the reader is able to audit the events, influences and actions of the researcher. The actual study containing the recording of this decision trail aimed to express the concerns of older patients who were admitted to the acute care sector. The study took place in two care of the elderly wards in a 1000-bed National Health Service hospital in the UK, in 1991. Eventually, 14 patients were interviewed, each on several occasions, and their concerns are expressed in themes, namely: routine geriatric style of care, depersonalization, care deprivation and geriatric segregation. I describe the preparations that were undertaken before patient interviews could commence. The literature recording the process of the interviewer's experience as data in qualitative research is scarce. I show the researcher's participation in making the data as part of an existential phenomenological research process. Existential phenomenology relies on recording influences while generating data such as significant literature, media reports, my value position and journal data.

  • Margarete Sandelowski

Although there are four large categories of research data, qualitative researchers have tended to emphasize interview data. Naive views of the interview, disembodied views of participant observation, and a virtual neglect of the material world have led to qualitative work that is not as full-bodied as it should be. Survey and qualitative researchers often share the realist's assumption that interview responses index some external reality of facts and feelings, respectively. The Western cultural tendency to separate body from mind, and to elevate the mental over the corporeal, has trivialized the extent to which the body is the obvious point of departure for any process of knowing, especially participant observation. This cultural tendency, as well as a weakness for mistaking words for things and for viewing material objects as neutral and mute, contribute to the neglect of the material world.

  • Wendy Moyle Wendy Moyle

There is debate about undertaking sensitive research with vulnerable populations. Primarily, the literature has focused on informed consent, confidentiality and the principle of beneficence, with little discussion about data collection methods. This paper discusses the challenges of conducting unstructured interviews when participants have a major depressive illness. Issues arose during a phenomenological study that explored the meaning of being nurtured with seven people who were hospitalized for depression. The depressive illness and treatment were found to impact on participants' articulation and recalling of their experience, and raised ethical concerns about their informed consent. Personal engagement with participants raised the ethical issue of research vs. therapy. Furthermore, participants being in a hospital complicated the necessity for privacy. The methodological issue of bracketing of assumptions was deemed to be important to 'see' the phenomenological relevance of patients' experiences. Knowledge and experience are required when conducting unstructured interviews. Debates about the challenges of unstructured interviewing needs to be highlighted in research texts to assist novice researchers. Support from an experienced research mentor would assist novice interviewers through the interview process and provide post-interview debriefing.